Menopause is associated with a rapid decline of estrogen, as well as a steady rate of decline of androgens. From an evolutionary perspective, increases in estrogens during fertile periods in females may direct sexual motivation toward males with preferential genes (the good genes hypothesis).įollowing natural or surgically induced menopause, many women experience declines in sexual motivation.
Ovulating heterosexual females also display preferences toward masculine faces and report greater sexual attraction to males other than their current partner. Non-pill using heterosexual females who are ovulating (high levels of estrogens) have a preference for the scent of males with low levels of fluctuating asymmetry. At this time, mating can result in female pregnancy.įemales at different stages of their menstrual cycle have been shown to display differences in sexual attraction. During this stage in the cycle, estrogens are elevated in the female and progesterone levels are low. The periovulatory period of the female menstrual cycle is often associated with increased female receptivity and sexual motivation. In particular, estrogens have been shown to correlate positively with increases in female sexual motivation, and progesterone has been associated with decreases in female sexual motivation. Estrogen and progesteroneĮstrogen and progesterone typically regulate motivation to engage in sexual behaviour for females in mammalian species, though the relationship between hormones and female sexual motivation is not as well understood. Polyamorous women have both higher levels of testosterone and score higher on measures of sexual desire than women who are single or women who are in single-partner relationships. Men involved in polyamorous relationships display higher levels of testosterone than men involved in either a single partner relationship or single men. It is also suggested that levels of testosterone are related to the type of relationship in which one is involved.
Later studies revealed this diminished sexual receptivity was specific to the elimination of androgens that can be converted to estrogen. Adrenalectomized female rhesus monkeys displayed diminished female sexual receptivity. However, some research with nonhuman primates suggests a role for androgens in female sexual behaviour. In particular, studies with rhesus macaques have observed testosterone was not significantly associated with variations in level of sexual motivation in females. Research suggests androgens, such as testosterone, are not sufficient by themselves to prompt sexual motivation in females. The relationship between testosterone and female sexual motivation is somewhat ambiguous. Ultimately, these higher levels of testosterone may increase the reproductive success of males exposed to female ovulation cues. Being exposed to female ovulating cues may increase testosterone, which in turn may increase males' motivation to engage in, and initiate, sexual behaviour. Males who were exposed to scents of ovulating women recorded a higher testosterone level than males who were exposed to scents of nonovulating women. Testosterone levels in males have been shown to vary according to the ovulating state of females. It is important to note that elimination of testosterone in primates does not reduce the ability to copulate rather, it reduces the motivation to copulate. It is postulated that the motivating effects of testosterone in male rhesus monkeys promotes successful sexual competition and may be particularly important motivating tools for low ranking males. Research from male rhesus monkeys suggests testosterone functions to increase sexual motivation, thereby motivating males to compete for access to sexual partners. Male humans who had their testicular function suppressed with a GnRH anatagonist displayed decreases in sexual desire and masturbation two weeks following the procedure. The elimination of testosterone in adulthood has been shown to reduce sexual motivation in both male humans and male primates. Testosterone appears to be a major contributing factor to sexual motivation in male primates, including humans. According to data from the Journal of Zhejiang University–Science, male testosterone levels exhibit a rhythm that corresponds to recent sexual activity.
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